What are the important facets of linkages between the phenomena and human perception of this phenomena.

Exploring relations between geostrategy and geopolitics. Geostrategy is agency action reference. It seeks preservation of territorial security. The question arises if there is a Gestaltian approach to security then it can be a normative thing of territorialising security beyond corpuscular borders. Griegal, "The stability and security of state borders are influenced by both geography—differences between land and sea borders and between the characteristics of land borders—and politics—the underlying balance of power." (p. 37). We must consider therefore a complicating factor: the politics between the states separated by the borders. "The stability of the borders is a factor of the underlying political relationship between the states in question rather than vice versa." (p. 38)

Centres of Resources

Can you relate the present situation in Europe as begetting this scenario?

Can you relate to Nord Stream 2 situation with this paragraph?

Amu Darya System

Hari Rud System

Hilmand- Arghandab System

Kabul System

Can you list the major rivers and their tributaries for each drainage basin system?

1. Salang Pass
2. Baroghill Pass
3. Dorah An Pass
4. Shibar Pass
5. Ak Sarat Pass
6. Unai Pass
7. Anjuman Pass

Use this list to find the location of these passes relative mountain ranges.
Can you mention the associated mountain ranges? Also, in which provinces of Afghanistan these passes are located.

There are eleven geographic zones according to the Louis Dupree Sceme,

1. the Wakhan Corridor-Pamir Knot
2. Badakhshan
3. Central Mountains
4. Eastern Mountains
5. Northern Mountains and Foothills
6. Southern Mountains and Foothills
7. Turkestan Plains
8. Herat-Farah Lowlands
9. Sistan Basin-Helmand Valley
10. Western Stony Deserts
11. Southwestern Sandy Deserts

Can you Identify the Major Characteristics for any one of these geographic regions at least 3-To 4 major ones?

Religious Nationalism in Afghanistan during Muhammad Ghazni’s period.
Over the three centuries since Muhammad b. al-Qasim al-Thaqafi's conquest the existing Islam of the Indus valley, During Arab communities had acquired what was in the eyes of the sternly conventional Mahmud a heterodox hint. During the 10th century, Muslims of Sind and Multan had come in a common Platform to recognize the spiritual and moral supremacy not of the Abbasids but of their Shitieyes. Fatimid enemies along with the local ruler in Multan Abu Fat'h Dawud had been on friendly terms with the Ghaznavids, in two campaigns of 1006 and 1010 the sultan attacked Multan massacred the Ismailism. Muhammad Ghazni called they are Qaramita or Carmathians and overthrew Abu al1-Fat'h. He was incapable in the interests of religion to endure that he (Abu '1-Fat'h) should remain in power so that he can see the violence of evil doing and the outrage of his issues. so, the reason is that the people of wealthy trading city Multan to have heavy pay fine too from the Ghaznavids Army. That he indicates that the implementation of orthodoxy could have its rewarding side. Then even so Ismailism survived there probably after Mascud's deposition and death in 1041 the Ismailis of Multan again raise their voice against Ghaznavid control.
These are such campaigns as these formed part of the image that he (Mahmud Ghazni) prudently built up round himself as the hero of Sunni convention and the scourge of some Muslims like of Ghur and Kafiristan modern Nuristan pagans or Hindus. While earlier in his career as a commander in Khurasan Mahmud had, like his father, giving support to the leaders of the pietistic Karramiyya which was at that time strong in Nishapur the Ghaznavids integrated to the average for most eastern Iranian and Turkish peoples adherence to orthodox Sunnism and the Hanafi school of Thought. The allegiance to this Involve spiritual and moral support by the C Abbasi Caliphs They are living a compact existence in Baghdad as pensioners of the Buyids and to their court dominated culturally and intellectually by the splendour and dominated by the Fatimids in Cairo. Mahmud needed the moral backing of the C Abbasids Cleophas. When first Muhammad Ghazni took over Khurasan and supplanted his lawful suzerains the Samanids, just as his son Mascud was to require it for the succession struggle with his brother Muhammad on their father's death in 1030.
The Ghaznavids Opened the phenomenon of the rapid transformation of a line of the barbarian, originally Turkish slaves into monarchs within the Iran Islamic tradition. Ghazni presided as authoritarian rulers over a multi-ethnic cultural realm comprising Iranians or Tajiks, Turks, Afghans, Indians and others. In this age before the evolution of the nation-state, the possession of subjects along with their various ethnic, cultural backgrounds and identities could contribute differing expertise and skills to the functioning of the state was regarded as a source of strength rather than that of weakness. Ghazni cannot forget their Turkish identity so that it is essential was its more military support was Turkish The administration and financing to the empire of Ghaznivids early documented the need for the services of their Iranian subjects above all for the secretarial class his secular traditions and does go back beyond the Islamic caliphate and ultimately to the Sasanians.
All these elements came together within what might be called the Ghaznavid in the power-state in which the sultan and his servants both military and civilian, stood over and against the mass of subjects (the division which was later to be termed, among the Ottomans, that of caskets and ready). There were no national or patriotic feelings which could act as a block of cement for society since the vision of the subject were he peasant, trader or artisan, was confined to his own locality and to the protection of his own immediate interests. It was the duty of the subjects to pay taxes to the state; in Bayhaqi's words, It is vital that they should be in complete fear and trembling of the king and the army, and give them complete obedience.
There was clearly considerable royal patronage of the Sunni revival in the eastern Islamic lands as part of the general movement which had grown up in reaction to the bid for political power in the tenth century of Shicism. Previously in the beginning years of the eleventh century, it is recorded that in Khuttal there were over twenty madrasas these colleges being one of the chief instruments for the education and training of an orthodox Sunni religious and official class. Almost all members of the ruling strata of Islamic society were vulnerable to the appeal of a holy man or mystic while people were often aware that there were many charlatans in the ranks of the Sufis and this seems to have been substantially the attitude of the sultans. It is very difficult to distinguish the fact that from pious fiction in the biography of the Khurasanian Shaykh Abu Sacid by his descendant. One would expect the Ghaznavids to have lent more support to the moderate Sufi groups of the time, such as that around the Nishapur scholar Abu 1-Qasim al-Qushayri than to an extravagant thaumaturge like Abu Sacid.

Ethno Nationalism among Hazaras and the Turkish Group
The ethnic nationalist mobilization clashed with the complexity of communal affiliations ‘Peoples of the North’ from ‘Turkish’ and ‘Uzbek’ found in some Jombesh papers, because of the presence of a Turkmen minority it was on the broader ‘Turkish’ rather than the ‘Uzbek’ aspect on which stress was laid. Tajiks and Hazaras were represented in Rashid Dostum’s militias and this added to the alliance with the Ismailis. Jombesh-i Melli (National Front) was established very differently from all the parties since its basis was an alliance between the northern militias and the Parchami units. Dostum was close to Babarak Karmal up till his death in 1996.Fifteen years of war had given a distinctive political personality to the North West provinces where the policy of national reconciliation had met with some success. The region was the only one to offer a haven to which the militias and the members of Hezb-i Watan could withdraw after the collapse of the government.
Ethnic distribution on northern Afghanistan was complex and did not offer for nationalist mobilization. In the North West provinces Faryab, Sari-I pul and Jozan Uzbek may be seen as predominant, with strong Turkmen minority.
For the Jombesh functionaries, the problem was there to initiate nationalist mobilization in a context where only local identities existed. The Jombesh purpose was to move from communal solidarity, which is based on qowms, show more abstract loyalty oriented towards a ‘macro ethnicity’ identified with Jombesh. This move requires an ideological framework and methods of mobilization.

The role of Pashtun Nationalism in Sustaining the Taliban movement:

The initial success of the Taliban was surprising throughout the World After the fallen of south of Afghanistan into its hands, this area is mainly controlled by non-Pashtun population in Herat they Structural organization. As a result Taliban recruit only among to the Traditional Pashtun that they are mainly dominant in the Afghan national territory.
The Taliban is sometime describe as a nationalist Pashtun or tribe, these are two concept they are not always distinguish from each other Taliban was a movement was dominant by some religious Individuals or a group of religious people, these religious people establish their authority with no reference of any tribal institutions. They made their head quarter in Kandhar where they lead the movement and this region is the base of Taliban. Taliban Law is mainly changes with the Tribal law and it will be dominantly with the Pashtun. this cannot be said that it is a tribal movement nor it can be represent with their on rights They used the name of Sharia to unite all the tribe, but it can be dominated by the Pashtun leaders and Pashtun law. The Taliban movement was founded to oppose all Nationalist pretention based Islamic fundamentalists Ideology. Taliban main goal was reunification of Afghanistan under an Islamic government.
Within the movement, Taliban along with the local solidarities were a stronger mobilizing force than affiliation to a Pashtun ethnicity as such. Mullah Omar is from Tarin Kot in the province of Uruzgan, and a strong representation of his countrymen was to be observed in positions of authority mullah Abbas. In addition Mullah Omar was a Ghilzai Pashtun Hottak, a group which Pierre Cent Livres has established was over-represented in the Taliban government. Other solidarity networks existed that are between the mujahidin who had previously served under this am commander such as Jalaluddin Haqqani, formerly of Hezb-i Islami (Khales).

Still the Taliban retained a distinct from Pashtun Identity especially in cultural affairs, tending to reject the Persian culture which was the basis of the training of ulema. Madras teaching in Northwest provinces was based on traditionally continued in Pashtu and Arabic. The Pashtun’s had continued to desire once more to achieve time domination within Afghanistan’s national territory Taliban did at some points to employ ethnic arguments to mobilize support. For instance, in 1995 as Ismail Khan advanced towards Kandahar,it appealed to Pushtun solidarity against a Tajik aggressor. Similarly in the north hits preference for alliances with Pushtun minorities gave credence, with hindsight, to the ethnic prejudices of both sides. The Taliban was also led by confrontation and suspicion to institute discriminatory practices for example against the Panjshiris of Kabul who were suspected to support Masud.

Tribal and Non tribal Foundation of Afghanistan:
The Afghanistan state was established in the eighteenth century, when a tribal association developed into a sovereign state. In 1747 Ahmad Shah, of the Saddozay tribe lead an Abdali association, now this tribe known as the Durrani, in the conquest of the area between Persia and the river Indus. The Saddozay dynasty was to be followed in 1818 by another Durrani dynasty, the Muhammadzay clan of the Barakzai tribe, which held power until 1978. The abdali and other tribal organization join hands with the common Aim that concequring Neighbouring areas with aview to Pillaging Exacting tribute. The military and political system of this time was defined by the Tribal Welfare. War was decided by the Jirja (meeting with the council of tribes). War was a short lived matter. The Arms (lashker) that went was selected from the total number of Warriors in the Arms (Lashkar). This is the Frame work of a traditional Society. But the Lashkar usually had a supreme and temporary leader whose room for maneuver was limited, for he was always suspected of favoring his own tribe. The supreme leader of the Lashkar was is a warrior chief with his followers in his contact. This leaded was elected and his right to lead was selected on the basis of the Tribal Jirga (assembly of all the warriors and leaders of the tribe). The allegation on the Restricted community the Tribal code of Pashtunwali not to the Pashtun or to the State join the enemy in order the better to affirm the tribal values (vengeance or self-assertion) was not seen as constituting treachery.
There is distinguish between the tribal zones and the non-tribal zones, even the line between the two is not clear. In every Afghan Community there is a Link to The Past by a connection of their families through his father. Every Afghan community is Conscious of belonging to a larger entity which takes the form of a more or less endogenous Community known as the Qawm. Whether they are Tribe, professional group caste, linguage (the galzai), the religious group (the Sunni, wahabi, Ahla-hadesh) etc. There are some other terms like: small tribe (qabila) used for the qwams (قوم) there are some traditional Tribal rights and rituals, a system within Islam of autonomous values (honour, punishment, etc.) The Pashtun Zone of the East called Pashtunwali (which is at one and the same time both a code and an ideology) and there are some prestigious Institutions of the Tribe called jirga,(جرگہ) the assemblies of all the men in the tribe. For the case of Those Pashtun they are living in the west, especially the Durrani Pashtun, the case is more difficult. There is certainly a tribal memory, in the sense that belonging to the tribe and the clan is something of which people are well aware and quite happy to talk about. Their allegiance is directed towards the great families, such as the royal family, or, in the case of the Popolzay tribe, the Karzay; they also respect the tribal mythology of the great jirga and the principle of egalitarianism
The history of the Afghan state (dawlat دولت) from 1747 to the present is bound up with the search on the part of the state of bureaucracy (hukumat) for autonomy from the tribes. The state government has influence of tribalism in the sense that individual tribes no longer retain specific responsibilities but it is still subject to the patronage of the community (qawm (قوم The summit of power in the 'state still belong to the Muhammadzay establishment.
Islam in Afghanistan
In Afghanistan majority of the Afghans are Muslim Apart from a few thousand Sikhs, Hindu and hundreds of Jews. 80% of Afghans are Sunnis and Majority of the Sunnis are the Follower of Imam Abu- Hanaifa called as Hanafi’s, others are Shi’a and Majority of them are the follower of Immam Jaffar Sadiq Known as Jefferies. In the Country of Afghanistan the concept of State is seen as external to society, and different tribal alliances in the society is directed towards their local community. The concept of Nation in Afghanistan has developed recently. The only Common thing in all the Afghan have their Religion Islam. Islam Provides that the system of Prospect, ruling system of Society and the Value system and behavioral Code. Sometime this Islamic System clash with the other Tribal Code of conduct, such as the Tribal System. E.g. This Islamic System provides the sovereignty and the source of Legitimation based on Universal Value Islam Provides equality with the Tribal, Non-Tribal Areas or Rular and Urban Areas., but on the same way the link between ideology and Religion differs accordingly, the situation can decide whether a group is Secularized fundamentalists or Traditionalists or Reformists. Hence there is different forms of religious expression, each decide with its own symbol. In this context, we should distinguish between the village mullah, the 'alim (doctor of lawعالم), the sayyad (reputed to be a descendant of the Prophet (PBUH)), the peer (a charismatic figure sometimes to be found at the head of a Sufi brotherhood) and finally the Islamist intellectual. Among the different forms of religious expression there should be a difference between the popular devotion, the legal orthodoxy of the ulama, the mysticism of the Sufis and the political Islam of the Salafism. Recent developments have seen a gradual erosion of the influence of the ulama, which has been going on since the last century, though this has suddenly been reversed because of the present war. There has also been a schism in Sufism between the orthodox orders in the non-tribal zones and the non-clerical orders in the southern area of Afghanistan. Other developments have been the decline in the influence of the sayyad and the charismatic leaders, and a crisis in the relationship between shari'at and custom in the tribal zones. The Islamist movement, led by young intellectuals, has greatly increased its power and influence.
Islam, traditional law and the tribal code:
Throughout all the Afghanistan Islam is not Only the Single System of norms. While state law (qanun) is alien to the country communities, customs (riwaj) and superstition, often of pre-Islamic origin, exist everywhere. There is also, a certain number of institutions, such as the counsel of the venerable elders, and mirab have developed without any direct link with the shari'at council. In particular, a complex but precise system of common law has gradually evolved in the countryside. But, as far as the non-tribal zones are concerned, the general framework of penal law and of common law is still provided by the shari'at. And even though reference to the shari'at is often purely verbal, no positive system has come to take its place.
The situation in the tribal zones is quite different to the non-tribal zone the positive system of the tribe, comparing with the tribal code (Pashtunwali) Jirga (Assembly of tribal Leader). Pashtunwali is a system of tribe at the same time is an ideology and body of common law. This law evolved as a system of its own sanctions and Institutions tribes are not dependent on Religion on the institution of law and Political power in the tribe are secular in Nature in its origin. The tribal Law and the Shari ‘at are opposed to each other on many issues.
The Status of Mulahana in the Tribal Zone are very low, the Mullahana of the village having good relation with the Tribe not with other Alim councils or other religious leaders. They gives more Importance to the Tribal Laws on the Shari’at. Even if Mulllaha native tongue is Pashtu or he is Pashtu, he would never say that he was a Pashtun, The son of a khan would never engage in religious studies. To be a Pashtun is to be integrated into a tribal structure. Ulama’s are outside the tribal system, either below it, or above it. The village mullah is placed with those people who have barakat, the myan, sayyad, peer and charismatic leaders. The family from which he comes is usually considered to be outside the tribal group. The position of mullah is often handed down from father to son he is dependent upon his own particular group. In the zones where the tradition of tribalism is still strong, such as Kunar and Paktya, he does not take part in the jirga, though elsewhere (for instance, in Wardak) he attends as a technical counsellor. If he attempts to go beyond his function as a person entrusted with the task of managing rituals, an anti-clerical reaction will always follow the mullahanas to the mosque. In each case the representatives of religion exist outside the tribal structure, a fact which has had important consequences with regard to the way in which Islam found as a religion of political expression in the war and this Influence used and exercised by the political parties which comes the confentration of the movement.
The Muslim Law (Shari ‘at) and tribal code are opposed to each other. e.g Adultery rape (zina) according to the Shari ‘at, it is necessary to require four witness to prove the case of Zina (Rape) but in Pashtunwali to defend the honour of one self-image, Peghor (hearsey) is Sufficient for what is at Self Image and not Morality and the honor. In the tribal code woman are not allowed to have any property rights of inherent Property. But in the Islamic law Shari ‘at clearly defines women are equally responsible for Husband Property and she has also get property right from her father’s property The Qur'an grants the women 1/4th share in the Father’s property It is necessary for the Father to property right to her Daughter. Vengeance (badal) is praised within the tribal code, while the shari'at attempts to limit the times on which it can be take place. Shari’at gives the importance to Forgiveness. The wesh (partition among brothers) the usual way in which land is redistributed, is contested by the mullahs on the grounds that landed property is something intangible.
These are two system the tribal code and Shari ‘at, these are two positive System which are quite frankly opposed to each other both of them are present a different different image of a social order. The Pashtunwali is a tribal code and it’s want to maintain a tribal equilibrium which always difficult and a threat to definite the tribe. So that this always a consensus of Opinion. A Tribal code define himself in opposition to everything that is everything is not Pashtun. But in Shari ‘at attempts to exceed specific Group Such as tribe, quawm and believe in the Universality of Umma. The code is Restrictive but more democratic.
As far as political life of Afghanistan is concerned, the tribal code want to isolate the Pashtun community while the shari'at, which does not recognize that ethnic groups have any ultimate reality. Shari’at provides a more universal social order. (roy, 1990)
For this reason the work of the ulama is seen as a threat to the identity of the tribe. The village mullahs are often closer to the tribal community than the ulama councils or any particular organization. The Mullaha of the village are careful not to interfere in these matters the charismatic leaders are quite willing to make use of the tribal code so that they may act as mediators.

Introduction:
Ethnicity Indicate that group and Identities have developed in mutual Contract Rather than in Isolation. Some scholars like A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn studied the various meaning of Culture in the Early 1950s they Identified 162 different definitions and many of those writers who write the term Ethnicity cannot bother to define the term and the use of term differ. Ethnicity is a group of people living together on a list item
common language, culture Traditions. There may be cultural considerable variations within a group without ethnic differences. as for as cultural differences perceives are made socially relevant do social relationship have an ethnic element. The similarities bounded as the competing ethnic group may infect be highlighted by Simon Harrison (2002) define in an Article intense ethnic boundary making between groups which see each other as smiler in an important respect. Nationalism has become a famous important form for modern claims to political autonomy and self-determination. The term was first coined in German by the philosopher Herder (Berlin 1976) and French by the Abbe Barruel (O’Brien 1988). It was linked to the concept of nation-state in the notorious formulations of Woodrow Wilson and the League of Nations (Maya11 1990, Kahn 1962: 133-35).
The problem with defining of ethnicity and nation and consequently with ethnicity and nationalism is their fixed view of something which is, in fact, an enormously dynamic set of relationships. Typical definitions of these two concepts list a set of required attributes that a social group has to possess in order to be deemed ‘an ethnic group or nation. Bulmer (2001) defines an ethnic group as “a collectivity within larger society which has real or imagined common ancestry, memories of a shared historical past, and a cultural focus upon one or more common elements which distinguish the members of the group form other members of the society include: area of origin, language, religion, nationality, kinship patterns, physical appearances such as skin colour” In a similar and defined way Smith (2003) defines a nation as “a named human population occupying a historic territory and sharing common myths and memories, a public culture, and common laws and customs for all members “Both of these definitions function with the words Wolf (1998) and after him Carrithers (1992) call a “billiard ball view of social groups” that is why they depositposit human collectivities as either or fixed and overly structured entities with stable and almost unchangeable features.

Meaning Of Ethnicity:

The ‘ethnic’ is an old term but 'ethnicity' is comparatively new and used possibly for the first by David Riesman in 1853 the concept came into a practical on the social reality after World War II. And the end of colonial order and emergence of the Third World. Ethnicity as a concept has also been referred to a twin process of self-identification also referred as ascription and identification by others. Like other sociological identification categories like age, sex etc., and ethnicity have not a clearly defined boundaries. Because of its ambiguity as a concept the concept can be subjected to a manipulation of various perspectives. Self-identification is commonly based on attributes of common descent, homeland, common cultural traditions including language and religion, as well as memories of migration, colonization or conquest and identification by others is considered qn physical, cultural and behavioral characteristics. Ethnicity in a simple sense refers to cultural and political collective identity as ascribed by a group of individuals or by others. A lunging to be in a collective is an inherent part of every individual in the ethnic group
Tribe:
The 'tribe' as a social category has its beginning in the Anglo Saxon Literature. Firstly the idea of ‘primitive tribes' was used in social Anthology to the colonies. The concept of primitive tribe becomes important to describe the society of Africa South America, the Middle East and South-East Asia. for the colonial anthropology, the tribes are those people who are outside Civilization and those who have not received civilization. The tribe as a culture become an Object. Tribes have an Isolate Culture. (Verrier Elwin)
Nationalism:
Nationalisms are extremely varied phenomena, they are joined by common involvement in the modem discourse of nationalism. They are common objects of reference in international law, political debate, and even economic development programs. Nationalism is an influential political ideology that although dependent on continuous reinforcement of the institution does not go against the grain of public opinion. This has little to do with some mystically ingrained identity and it’s a great deal with the historical context of a post-Westphalian world where not being national is scarcely an option any more. In other words, nationalism is not as “identity and loyalty to the nation” it is the particular, historically created, an ideological condition that most human beings now find themselves in it. As Anderson define the stress, once the idea of imagining political communities as nations was developed, it was “modular” and could be transplanted into a wide range of otherwise disparate settings. This is what raises the issue of whether Third World or postcolonial nationalisms express “authentic” indigenous concerns or are in some sense derivative discourses (Chatterjee 1986). The discourse of nationalism is inherently international. Claims to nationhood are not just internal claims to social solidarity, common descent, or any other basis for constituting a political community.
Relationship between Ethnicity Tribe and Nationalism:
Nationalism is extremely varied phenomena that are joined by common involvement in the modem discourse of nationalism. Nationalist claims to nationhood are not just internal claims to social solidarity, common descent, or any other basis for constituting a political community. They are also right to distinctiveness other nations, claims to at least some level of autonomy and self-sufficiency, and claims to certain rights within a world-system of the nation. In other words, however, varied the internal nature of nationalisms, in other words, they share a common external frame of reference. Thus even if nationalist claims to primordial origins, ancient ethnic pedigrees, or hallowed founding histories were all true, thus, and even if every nation had pre modem roots something manifestly impossible in the case of such settler societies like the United States, Australia or South Africa-at least as defined by their European population's nationalism would still be a modem phenomenon. This is true even of “extreme” forms such as National Socialism, despite the tendency of modernization theorists and others to treat Nazism as a throwback to the modem Indeed this phenomenon of claiming state centred political rights on the basis of nationhood is arguably one of the defining phenomena of Nationalism.
There is a common thing of notions that ethnic and national identity which are also common among some academics imply that ethnicity nationalism ethnic identity and national identity, In other words, these all three concepts are seen as largely having unproblematic and the simple mechanical addition of one to the other allows us to speak of and research ethnicity or nationalism. Sometimes the distinction is made between ethnicity and ethnic identity or nation and national identity, therefore, this is a deeply flawed strategy since, as with the concept of Nationalism so do the concepts of ‘ethnicity’ and ‘nation’ carry a lot of problems. The problem with most defining of ethnicity and nationalism is their fixed view of something which is, in fact, an extremely dynamic set of relationships. There are some typical definitions of these two concepts list a set of required attributes that a social group has to possess in order to be deemed an ethnic group or nation. Bulmer defines an ethnic group as a collectivity within larger society which has real or imagined common ancestry memories of a shared historical past and a cultural focus upon one or more common elements which distinguish the members of the group form other members of the society which include: that the area of origin, language, religion, nationality, kinship patterns, physical appearance such as skin colour language etc. there are some other scholars defines nationalism, In the words of smith “a nation as a named human population occupying a historic territory and sharing common myths and memories a public culture, and common laws and customs for all members”
Nationalism is an influential political ideology that although dependent on continuous reinforcement of the institution does not go against the grain of public opinion. This has little to do with some mystically ingrained identity and it’s a great deal with the historical context of a post-Westphalian world where not being national is scarcely an option any more. In other words, nationalism is not as “identity and loyalty to the nation” it is the particular, historically created, an ideological condition that most human beings now find themselves in it.

Conclusion:

In short there as common relations with identity ethnicity and nation contain a multiplicity of meanings. The plasticity and ambiguity of the concepts allow for deep misunderstandings as well as political misuses. There is unlike identity ethnicity and nation have also acquired legislative and institutional underpinnings through formulations such as ‘ethnic minority ethnic group nationhood or nationality which have had even more destructive effects. Hence there is a most popular and legislative understanding of ethnicity and nation are severely problematic since they operate with sociological views of cultural difference perceiving it from the inside out.

Material Culture:
Refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture.. Material culture consists of things that are created by humans. Material culture includes things Such as Building, Cars such things as jewellery, art, buildings, weapons, machines, and even eating utensils, hairstyles, and clothing etc. there is nothing Inherent or Natural in Material Culture.

Nonmaterial culture:
Refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, It’s abstract ideas and ways of thinking that make up a culture. It’s a group way of thinking beliefs Values Assumption About the word and Doing its Common Pattern of Behavior.

Elements of Non-material Culture:
Sociologists sometimes refer to nonmaterial culture as symbolic culture, because its central component is the set of symbols that people use. Non-material Culture includes (Symbol) gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, and mores. Let’s look at each of these components of symbolic culture.

Gesture:
A gesture is a Movement of the body that people make in order to communicate with their bodies. All cultures use gestures. Two cultures may use the same gesture, but it may have different meanings in both cultures. For example, people from Afghanistan uses stroking one’s beard or pounding a fist into one’s hand may signify revenge. and Hooking the index fingers together signifies agreement. The thumbs-up gesture is considered rude and has the same connotation as raising one’s middle finger for traditional Afghans.

Language:
The primary way in which people communicate with one another is through language that can be combined in an infinite number of ways for the purpose of communicating abstract thought. Language is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people. This includes full languages as we usually think of them, such as English, Spanish, French, etc. But it also includes body language, slang, and common phrases that are unique to certain groups of people. For Example, people of Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan use Urdu as official languages, Speak Fluent Urdu but when accent of Punjabi language and Kashmiri language mix with it several time using the same word change the meaning of it. Another example of how cultural languages differ beyond vocabulary is the fact that eye contact represents different meanings in different cultures. In America, eye contact suggests that you are paying attention and are interested in what a person has to say. In other cultures, eye contact may be considered rude and to be a challenge of authority.

Values:
Another element of Non Material culture is a system of values, which are culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable. Members of the culture use the shared system of values to decide what is good and what is bad. It is the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly. Values underlie our preferences, guide our choices, and indicate what we hold worthwhile in life.

Norms and Sanctions:
Norms are the expectations, or rules of behaviour, that reflect and enforce behaviour. Sociologists use the term norms to describe those expectations (or rules of behaviour) that develop out of a group’s values.
Sanctions: The term Sanction is either expressions of approval given to people for upholding norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them. The term sanctions refer to the reactions people receive for following or breaking norms.
Some societies have moral holiday places, locations where norms are expected to be broken. Red-light districts of our cities are examples. There, prostitutes are allowed to work the streets, bothered only when political pressure builds to “clean up” the area. If these same prostitutes attempt to solicit customers in adjacent areas, however, they are promptly arrested. Each year, the hometown of the team that wins the Super Bowl becomes a moral holiday place for one night.

Folkways and Mores:
Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behaviour. Informal norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores. Folkways are informal rules and norms that, while not offensive to violate, are expected to be followed. Mores (pronounced more-rays) are also informal rules that are not written, but, when violated, result in severe punishments and social sanction upon the individuals, such as social and religious exclusions. Norms that are not strictly enforced are called folkways. We expect people to comply with folkways, but we are likely to shrug our shoulders and not make a big deal about it if they don’t. If someone insists on passing you on the right side of the sidewalk, for example, if someone is unlikely to take corrective action, although if the sidewalk is crowded and you must move out of the way, you might give the person a dirty look.
It should also be noted that one group’s folkways may be another group’s mores. Although a man walking down the street with the upper half of his body uncovered is deviating from a folkway, a woman doing the same thing is violating the mores. In addition, the folkways and mores of a subculture may be the opposite of mainstream culture.

Cultural Relativism:
Cultural relativism is the belief that right and wrong are culturally based on individuals. “According to this premise, no one universal ethical standard transcends cultures. Basically in cultural relativism, right or wrong are relative to one’s cultural upbringing. No one overarching ethical truth exists.” (Panza and Potthast, 2010). Culture relativism is to use our own culture as the standard by which we judge other cultures and to counter the tendency of over own culture. People practice cultural relativism to understand other cultures own their own term. For example people of Kashmir love to eat Rice and South Indian People also eats Rice The the way that the south Indian people eat rice is not different from Kashmiri. Both are following the same Rice But the way they eat is different from one another.

In many of the Islamic states political Islam has made its appearance through various regimes. States like Afghanistan and Pakistan are also no exception to it. Many rulers from time to time are seen using religion for various political activities. Since Abdur Rahman Khan believed that the heterogenic nature of Afghan society hindered the nation’s unity, he used religion to forge a unity in diversity. As majority of the population followed Islam, he believed that a common religion would be able to surpass ethnic differences. Amidst all these he also started declaring himself as the Muslim ruler of all Afghan people and claimed divine sanction for his rule. In many cases it was seen that he even used religion as a way to achieve political legitimacy. Claiming himself as a true follower of Islam and as a liberator of the Afghan people, he was seen using Islam against his Internal and External oppositions like the tribal leaders and external interventions. Viewing them as a threat to his power he termed many of these internal and external powers as ‘infidels’. He was often seen claiming that the role played by the tribal and foreign powers in the land of Afghanistan was contrary to the teachings of Islam and hence tribal boundaries were eliminated with provincial leaders. He was against of Afghanistan being used as a buffer state by international powers. All these effort were primarily made to eliminate his potential and actual opposition. Converting the land of Kaafirstan to Nooristan in the name of Religion helped him in cracking the powers of local leaders and bringing the religious establishments under his control and authority. Therefore where religion became a medium to achieve national unity it was also a path to political legitimacy during the rule of Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.

Abdur Rehman was the first leader in the history of Afghanistan who used religion as an instrument of political power. He used political Islam as a mean to oppress the minorities. He used Sunni hanafi school of Islam to incorporate non Sunni areas of Hazarajat and Kafirstan which were never under the control of Kabul government before. He declared the Shia hazaras as infidels and therefore ordered his troops to enslave and killed them and confiscated their properties to accommodate the Pakhtuns in those areas. Similarly he used Islam as an opportunity to control Kafirstan of eastern Afghanistan since the area was vulnerable to Russian and British influence. As a true Islamic ruler he started the conversion process of the kafirs and changed the name of kafirstan to Nuristan. Through religion he established direct communication with the common Afghan population and therefore the age old practice of appeasing the tribal and ethnic elite was reduced during his reign. Before the rise of Abdur Rehman as the new Amir of Afghanistan, Sufi Islam was more widespread in Afghanistan. But from 1880s onwards ideological Islam became prominent due to his policies. However during those years Islamic awakening was also coupled with the resistance to colonial rule as the British and the Russian empire were exerted their influence in the region. The Amir declared himself as the “light of the nation and religion” and therefore the Muslim population became more obliged towards the Amir. Likewise during his regime the religion became an instrument of state polity.

The Sheikhs and Shayads in the earlier period have respect, they do the institutional arrangements. Kabilas are the smaller units, they are the locational generic identity of a Qom, Qom is a referance group actually there identity is based on Kabilas. Qom and Kabilas are idealised group. Kabilas hold the location ( Village settlements are instituted by Kabilas ). Individuals came in that reference, practising certain codes of behaviour.

Pashtunwali is set of Behavioural codes that give reference to both Qom and Kabilas. In 18th century however no modern family / institution aspire for statehood. Amir ruled autonomous units, they are the spiritual leaders. He has binding force for the Qom , leadership qualities. When we try to define nation as nation-state then problem arise because there are many groups – Tajikhs, Hajaras, Ujbekhs etc. The period is divided into three groups from 1748 – 1828 – Pashtun ruled , then later 1828 – 1848 Amirs are the spiritual leaders , after that 1848 – 1878 King become a hereditary monarch, where power transmitted from father to son. New Amir is appointed through law and order.

In modern state there were two instrument of power
1) Rise of Bureaucracy
2) Rise then decline of Polygamy

In a modern state Jirga indulge in polygamous institution weakened. In 20th century there was a effort to do away with Kinship, rise of bureaucracy was there and decline of polygamous structure. The monarch created institutions, from Amanullah there is a system of constitutional monarchy.
Therefore there is a transition of Afghan state from tribe – nation corollary to state citizenship norm during 19th to 20th century.

Afghanistan is an Islamic state that is embroiled between three basic principles –Traditionalism, Fundamentalism and Modernism. By traditionalism we mean the desire to freeze society so that it confirms to the memory of what it once was – it is society as described by our grand parents. Fundamentalism refers to go back to the fundamental things of a particular religion whereas by modernism we refers to the modern state. In Afghan society there is duality of power system and four types of group who claim authority. They are Traditional authority that is authority described by our grand-parents, second is the Religious authority holders like the Mullahs and Alims. The third claimant group is the Representative authority of the modern nation state and the fourth is the Radical pressure groups that is of the Taliban’s and Al-Qaeda.

In urban areas state intervention is accepted, whereas in rural areas there was extended brotherhood, the Maliks and Khans were known for personnal loyality systems. Mullah and Alims are the religious authorities. They both behave in a lot more pragmatic way. Communism became a influencing idea in Afganisthan due to the Urban – Rural divide. Monarchy technically get abolished in 1964 , the last monarch was Mohammed Zahir Shah. The Durrani Pashtuns were the rulers of Afghanistan. After that Afghanistan became a democracy where religion become important tool in Nation- building. Tribes, language and religion are three pillars of Afghan nation-building.

Afghan situation is compared with Iran and Pakistan. In Pakistan there were Pashtuns in North west due to which there were frequent border conflicts. Pakistan a religious identity with nation state and Iran on the basis of traditional society and modernity. There were a good number of persian speaking people in Afghanistan which is a native language of Iran. The British annexed Peshawar, Habiullah tried to capitalize on his restraint by asking the british to return voluntarily the Pashtun territories. So the rulers both Amanullah and Habiullah both wanted to bring modernity to cross the tribal identity.

Therefore these 2x4 scheme of sources to power and contest among various groups are seriously challenged with increasing globalisation and with the advent of free-market economy.

Afghanistan is an Islamic state that is rule by the Shariat law. In Afghanistan we can distinguish the rural and urban setting. The rural part of Afghanistan is mainly found in the tribal chief and Khan but in the urban side of Afghanistan is mainly found on modernity and new notions of thinking. In Afghanistan we can also see the different power position in between the rural and the urban sides. In rural side of Afghanistan the main power is in the hand of the Khan but in the urban area the main power is in the hand of the bureaucrats.
There is the duality of power system in Afghan society. There are two sources of power: the first one is related to the countryside which is based on customs and rule followed in the tribal areas by the tribal chief and Khan and the other one is the modern state or the bureaucratic which is being followed in the urban areas. There are four claimants to the power such as the Traditional authority, the religious authority, the representative authority or the modern state and the radical pressure group. The traditional authority is based on Khans and the tribal chiefs. The religious authority is based on the clergical class like the Mullahs, Ulamas and Alims and these groups are strongly emphasized their religious practices. The Mullah of the village side is quite different from the urban because they are not mastered on the law. The Mullah of the village are traditionalist and not fundamentalist. The Modern state or the representative authority, like the Nation-state which comes out as a secular ideologies and it brings modernization to reject the tribalism as a form of primitivism. The last one is the Radical pressure groups like the Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
The modernization and the ethnic diversity in Afghanistan is the cause of the confrontation between the tribal and non tribal regions for their identity. It can be compare Afghanistan to other state like Iran a traditional, religious authority as well as the modern state. The transition period in Afghan history is during the period of influences of Habibullah khan and Amanullah khan which replicates the efforts and attempts of the Afghan monarchy to cross over the tribal identity into a modern nation state and both the rulers wanted to bring modernity in Afghan society.
The arrival of modernity, globalization, free market and free flow of goods and resources or capital, this 2x4 scheme of sources of power are critically challenged for the ethnic diversity state like Afghanistan.

Afghanistan is an Islamic state which governs by Shariat law. In case of Afghanistan we can see there are three main characteristic of Afghan society such as traditionalism, fundamentalism and modernism. So, the history of afghan society has unique traits. In Afghanistan there are two source of power with existing four types of claimant group. The dual structure of power the first power is related to countryside which is derived from custom and rule and it is based on loyalty system towards tribal chief and Khan of tribal region. Even as rural afghan society has seen this type of power and have traditional authority. Other hand, other source of power is related to afghan state/ modern state/ bureaucratic system which are also existed in urban area. There are four types of group which is claim its own authority the first one is the traditional authority like Khan which confirm memories and society as described by our grandfather. The second one is the religious authority like Mullah, Alim and Ulama. They are emphasized strict religious practices but here, the village Mullah is different from the Alim because who have not mastered the whole corpus of the law are traditionalist and not fundamentalist. The third one is the representative state like the Nation-state. The emergence of Nation-state founded on secular ideologies may once have seemed to be the root which societies must necessarily take it they were to undergo modernization, rejecting tribalism as a form of primitivism. The fourth one is the radical pressure group like Taliban and Al-Qaeda. This situation in Afghanistan is the cause of Soviet influence. The ethnic diversity and their norms of the afghan people which origin power and identity conflict between rural and urban, tribal and non-tribal etc. Afghan situation is compared to other countries like Iran a traditional society as well as a modern state and Pakistan is religious identities with Nation-state. The transition period of Afghan history reflects the affords and attempt the Afghan monarch to cross over the tribal identity in to a modern Nation-state. The ruler of Amanullah and Habiullah both wanted to brings modernity to cross the tribal identity. The radical Islamist like Rabbani to enjoyed new benefit of power and also take the religious role and authority through bargaining to state.

According to Moynihan ethnicity have various terms such as culture, religion, national, linguistic, social etc. we cannot defined as one word. Ethnicity is a sub-group of the society and it is based on cultural tradition and it is running by its inheritance process. This process is based on death and birth. He also tells about survival and new identity. People who loosed on its old identity and getting new identity is called new-ethnicity like melting pot. Moynihan tells that the conflicting occurs within ethnic group is mainly on two causes first is the primordial and the second one is the power relation. Primordial is based on cultural tradition and power relation is based on new- ethnicity as the notion of majority and minority.

Ethnic group is based on the demand for prestige, respect, civil rights, political power and access to economic opportunity. When the state does not fulfill their demands then the group tried to get state hood which is ethno-nationalism, example: Jammu and Kashmir. Other side, some ethnic group played role as an interest group and want to capture politics. According to Moynihan social status which related to two types of norms are in the society such as ascribes and the other is achievistics. This social status depends on availability of the resources. He said that the social stratification which based on success may bring the hierarchy among the group in the society. Success is transformed from achievistic to ascriptive model. Moynihan talks about the group stereotype problem are not in terms of norms but also material wealth. He also talks about reverse discrimination and positive things of group stratification.

Moynihan creates differences between urban and rural ethnicity. Rural ethnicity concern of the culture and urban ethnicity concern of the class. Diaspora role in maintaining the ethnic identity through language etc. example: the American society. He also tells us about duality of ethnicity, example: territorial identity.

In terms of Afghanistan, there is a big divide between rural Afghanistan and urban Afghanistan because the fact remains that urban Afghanistan is based on traditional system,revolutionary thoughts and modernity whereas rural Afghanistan is based on khan or loyalty network in the tribal regions.thus emerges two distinct power systems one is bureaucratic in the urban region the other is the khan or the loyalty network.in urban areas state intervention is welcomed whereas in rural areas state intervention is seen as threat to their rural autonomy.
The emergence of nation state with modernity as an essential component rejected tribalism as a form of primitiveness.Modern states emerges as a secular identity.So there is a continuous conflict between tribal and non tribal region,where state and tribe cannot go side by side.This brings crisis in the institutions.there are two sets of law urban and rural which creates duality of power system.Thus the state cannot adapt foreign policies in two sets of law and are easily prone to foreign intervention as in Afghanistan we can easily examine the soviet dominance due to this cause.
Afghan Society have duality of power system.There are two sources of power as said and four claimants to the power namely
1- Tribal chiefs and khans(Traditional authority)
2-The clergical class(The religious authorities like Mullahs and Ali ms)
3-Modern State(The representative authority)
4-Radical pressure groups like Taliban's.

In the case of Iran,The religious Authority has the traditional power a well as the state power.The clergical class has taken the upper hand.There are transitional stages in Afghan history during the reigns of Habibullah khan and Amanullah khan which reflects the efforts and attempts of the Afghan monarchy to cross over the tribal identity into a modern nation state,both the rulers wanted to bring modernity and this transition brought crises within the state as the rural afghans are challenged by the authorities.thus Radical Islamist were given bargains to enjoy the benefits of modernity.lastly with the advent of globalization and free flow of market and goods and arms this 2*4 scheme of sources of power are seriously challenged and create grave dangers to the state where there is division among the rural and urban.

2) Discuss the transition of the Afghan State from tribe-nation corollary to state-citizenship norm during 19th-20th century.

Gellner’s theory on Nationalism

Gellner tries to define Nationalism on two undefined terms – State and Nation. On one hand where Nationalism is an ideology of a particular ethnic group bring about by modernity, on the other hand state is a political entity with high degree of sovereignity. There are however many ways by which Nationalist sentiments can be violated – a) When the political boundary of a given state cannot include all members or b) Include some foreigners that will raise consciousness. Nationalist principle is violated when their is domination of an Elite or highly intellectual class over the simple majority of population. In a state there is division of labour. State exist where specialized police forces and courts separated from rest of social life. Problems of nationalism does not arise in a stateless society because boundaries are not congruent. There are so many cultures, languages people but there cannot be so many states. For eg – In primitive society , their is no specific culture, economic necessity so the idea of nationalism has not emerged, but in modern era of industrialization, urbanization, modern education, where economic development is the main concern of every group, nationalist principle cannot be ignored.

Smith’s theory on Ethno-symbolism

Anthony D. Smith criticized Gellner’s view on nationalism, i.e Gellner believed that nation and nationalism are the result of means of modernization, industrialization, urbanization etc. During Smith’s study he got influenced by Gellner’s view but later Smith’s view lead to analysis of nations and nationalism in terms of myths, memoirs, symbols, values and tradition which is core of Ethno-symbolic approach. Ethnic communities, ethnic association are the desirable points on the basis of which Nations are created. These groups, communities regularizing laws and customs, and are securing the boundaries in a more administrative or political sense. For Eg – 26th of January Republic Day is celebrated by all the Indian people.

Barth’s Boundary Approach

According to Barth an Ethnic group has a membership which is identified by itself and is identified by others, we can recognize a particular ethnic group by their boundaries that separates them from the others. An ethnic group has certain cultural traits – symbols of culture by which they identify themselves. The ethnic group creates a boundary which define themselves. The boundary to which we must give our attention are social boundaries though they have territorial counterparts which leads to formation of a nation.

Conclusion

Gellner defined Nation and Nationalism on the basis of modern forces – like education, political mobilization, urbanization that leads to generation of nationalist sentiment, Smith’s view leads to analyses of nations in terms of certain symbols, values, traditions. Barth view was that ethnic group create certain boundaries by distinguishing themselves from the other that leads to formation of a nation.

Gellner’s theory on nation and nationalism

Gellner said that nation and nationalism are created by elite and intellectuals that is related to the process of modernization. Modernization also related to education and literacy which is used for the strengthening of the state. Gellner also said that modernization is an uneven manner, which created sharp stratification within the society as a result those who get less beneficial started the rebellious movement. So, Gellner said that nationalism is primarily a political principle which holds that the political and national unit should be congruent. Moreover, nationalist sentiment can be understood as the feeling of anger aroused by the violation of the principle or the feeling of satisfaction aroused by its fulfillment.
Gellner briefly described and focus preexistence factors like culture, socio-cultural norms like Weberian notion of state (monopoly of legitimate violence), structural aspects like political elements federalism.

Smith views on Ethno-symbolism

Smith criticized Gellner views of nation and nationalism and said Gellner as a modernist. Smith developed his own approach Ethno-symbolism. This approach identified that the memories, myths, symbols and traditions are ethnic roots of nation. These ethnic roots provide the nationalist elites with the materials and foundations to build up nationalism. A nation’s can recurrence, continuity and reappropriation. Smith believed and accepted that emergence of ethnic group for political and religious factors more important rather than socio-cultural factors. Other hand, Smith talks about various usages of the term nationalism as a movement, symbols and language etc. He emphasized state sovereignty and said that Ethno-centric nationalism. He defined dual legitimization of the state and three ways such as neo-traditionalist, assimilationist and revivalist. He said that nationalism is not only an objective it is also a subjective. He also focuses on origin and two type of nation such as lateral and extensive related bureaucratic incorporation for example the Roman Empire. Second vertical and intensive bureaucratic.

Barth’s boundary approach

Barth argues that an ethnic group should be viewed as a form of social organization. According to him there is no one-to-one relationship between an ethnic group and a set of cultural boundaries. Cultural boundary can be manipulated. People can employ the dissimilarities to create a boundary between themselves and others. According to Barth ethnic group are concerned with cultural differentiation, an ethnic group is founded on the consequences of socio-cultural interactions between groups, an ethnic group is not a fixed cultural unit and a certain ethnic identity at both individual and collective levels.

In New Ethnicity, their is a notion of Melting Pot. The immigration process is the single determinant of generation of Melting Pot. Multicultured society is the key generator of a heterogeneous society. For eg – Canadian society depicted as being multicultured.

Desocialization is another concept described by Moynihan in which cultural differences are regulated by institutions, as society become liberalized and class concerns took atmost importance.‘ Ethnonationalism’ denotes the pursuit of statehood by an ethnic community. In a democratic government , the government to secure power fulfil needs of Ethnic groups and groups to achieve economic success indulge in revolts, became member of interest groups. For Eg – The emergence of the Telangana state,in India, the government provide it statehood after a massive Telangana Movement.

Dahrendorf was of the view that every society is controlled by hierarchy of authority positions – both superior and subordinate holds interests that are contradictory in substance and direction. Mass media reports also at times spread much more ethnic discontent in a society. A diaspora also plays important role in mantaining ethnic identity.

Ethnic conflicts arises on the basis of race, nationality, minority-majority issues, class etc because the norms and roles of all these factors clashes with each other in all the places.

Gellner's theory on nation and nationalism

Gellner’s view on nations and nationalism stress that nations and nationalism are created by elites and intellectuals or highly educated people. Gellner argued that the emergence of nationalism is closely related to modernization. The process of modernization is closely linked to the promotion of education and literacy. Education and literacy provide the state with essential infrastructure to broaden its administrative reach over its territory. Therefore, the state has a material incentive to promote education and literacy.
Gellner points out the language used at the centre normally become the official language for governing, industrial and educational use. when this official language and its written form are imposed on the areas in which the local vernacular is not well-suited with the official language, the effectiveness of deriving faithfulness from these areas by imposing the official language may not live up to the expectation. The uneven industrialization and economic growth can create groups of people who are excluded from the process of modernization. Therefore, the stratification may offer incentives and opportunities for rebellious movements. The leaders and intellectuals of the underprivileged may advocate organization and claim that it can resolve the problems of unevenly spread modernization. Therefore, influenced by such a speech, the underprivileged natives can support their leader’s ideologies and seek secession.

Smith’s theory on ethno-symbolism

Smith identifies that the formation of nations and nationalism require ethnic elements. By criticising the modernists, Smith develops his own approach ethno-symbolism. This approach identifies that the memories, myths, symbols and traditions are ethnic roots of a nation. These ethnic roots provide the nationalist elites with the materials and foundations to build up nationalism. Nations are not solely constructed for their contemporary political demands. Nations are continuously linked with their ethnic roots. According to Smith, a nation is a human population sharing an historical territory, a mass, public, culture, a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members. A nation must have its own state which controls certain territory, but an ethnic group needs not. Ethnic groups may enjoy a linkage with their homeland but they are by and large cultural and emotional entities. A nation can integrate an ethnic group with its civil elements such as common economic practices and legal rights and duties.

Barth’s boundary approach

Barth suggests that the ethnic groups including ethno-symbolism only pay attention to the open cultural contents of the ethnic groups. Each ethnic group is isolated from others and developing their own culture independently. Barth argues that an ethnic group should be viewed as a form of social organization. For him, there is no one-to-one relationship between an ethnic group and a set of cultural boundaries. Cultural boundaries can be manipulated. People can employ the dissimilarities to create a boundary between themselves and others. The existence of the boundary depends on continuous expression and validation of the cultural difference. Ethnic groups are concerned with cultural differentiation. An ethnic group is founded on the consequences of socio-cultural interactions between groups. An ethnic group is not a fixed cultural unit. It is rather produced and reproduced in socio-cultural interactions and transactions.

Conclusion

A nation is primarily created by elites with nationalism. The elites including intellectuals reappropriate, reconstruct and transform the ethnic roots of nations: myths, memories, symbols and traditions. The elites do not create a nation as they wish but construct the nation with materials derived from its ethnic contents. However, ethnic groups and ethnic identities are more complex than ethno-symbolism. Ethnic groups defined only by cultural boundaries. An ethnic group is not a fixed culture bearing unit. Ethnic identities are generated by socio-cultural differentiation.

Gellner's theory of Nationalism-

-According to him Nations and Nationalism are created by elites and intelligentsia,which is turn is closely related to modernization.For modernization, promotion of education and literacy is necessary which helps the state to administer its territory.The State had to expand plenty of resources for its modernization process and to sustain teachers,specialist and intellectuals.Language according to Gellner is an important aspect in forming nationalism.Local languages are easily grasped by the people,but when this official languages are imposed on the areas in which the locals are not compatible,then modernization and industrialization in the empire proceeds in an uneven manner and social stratification can be observed.this stratification may led to rebellious movements.Thus National identity can be viewed as national sentiments and can form a community which later seeks for National identity .

Smiths Ethno-Symbolism-

smith identifies that the formation of nation and nationalism requires ethnic elements.he criticizes Gellner as modernist because of their lack of ethnic foundations.According to him ,minorities,myths,symbols and traditions are ethnic roots of a Nation.These ethnic roots provide the nationalist elites with the materials to build up nationalism.He argues that instruments of production and education are not so important but state and security interests are more important ,revival of culture are important.Lastly dominant ethnic group is the core in forming a Nation.

Barth's Boundary Approach-

Over the period of time each territory has its own mark of boundary line.Boundaries are preexisting in forms of cultural groups and nation.The existence of boundary is erected and it depends on continuous expression and validation of the cultural difference. People manipulate the cultural proximities and dissimilarities.Thus cultural contents are important ingredients for the creation of Nation.

• The interplay of both local and Imperial factors must be used for sustaining the argument.

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The major criticism of Gellner's nationalism are its over-emphasis on economic factors and homogenisation, neglect of ethnic factors, inability to explain the phenomena of nationalism in pre-industrialised and stateless societies etc.

Gellner is of the opinion that there should be one to one relation between nation and state. The existence of many nations within political boundaries of a single state may result in nationalist separatism promoted by economically and culturally marginalized section. In this way unsettled boundaries and unequal distribution of power among contrasting nation become constant source of resentment to the dominating state.

Barth’s Boundary Approach:
According to Barth, ethnic studies only focus on the evident cultural stuff of ethnic groups. Every ethnic group tries to detach from other groups and develop its own distinct culture to distinguish itself from other cultures. Barth conceives ethnic groups as ‘a form of social organization’. According to him, there is no one-to-one relationship an ethnic group and a set of cultural boundaries. Ethnic groups create boundaries on the basis of cultural proximities/similarities and dissimilarities. Cultural boundaries can be manipulated by people to create dissimilarities between themselves and others. In other words, every ethnic group tries to demonstrate themselves distinguish from other groups on the basis of cultural proximity or remoteness which leads to demarcation of cultural boundaries.

The Turks had tremendous multi-dimensional influence in South Asia. The Turks completed the mission of Islamization in South Asia, first started by the Arabs. The Turks provided strong administration in Indian subcontinent for 800 years. Balban's theory of kingship depicts the Turkish influence on indian political theory. Militarily, the Turks emphasized on a well-equipped stable army. Judicial system also received Turkic influence. In the field of language, some effects are- the progress of Persian language (first language during Mughal period), emergence of Urdu etc. According to a recent research, the origin of some Indian languages can be traced to Anatolia (modern day Turkey) such as Marathi, Bengali, Marwari etc. The Turks introduced Unani system of medicine. In the field of art, some Turkic influence are- introduction of the art of papier mache and enameling skills. Ottoman paintings influenced Indian paintings. The Turks improved the process of decorating books. An Indo-Islamic style of architecture developed. The Turks founded many Indian cities like Agra, Jaunpur etc, which had the Turkic influence.

Nationalism “is a theory of political legitimacy, which requires that ethnic boundaries should not cut across political ones, and, in particular, that ethnic boundaries within a given state should not separate the power holders from the rest.”

Theoretically, Stateless societies cannot experience nationalism. The state is a prior necessity to nationalism. When, there is no state and ruler, one cannot express frustration for their failure to the requirements of the principle of nationalism. Generally, Nationalists have resented against the distribution of political power and the nature of political boundaries, but if there is absence of the power and of boundaries altogether, nationalist have rarely got chance to criticize requirements of the principle of nationalism. It was its boundaries and/or the distribution of power, and possibly of other advantages, within state which were resented.