Write a brief note on the following aspect of Kushanas, as discussed in the class.
1. explore the connections - geo-cultural realms (south, central, west),inner + maritime Asia.
2. instruments of negotiation among empires.
3. reasons for the Kushans to migrate to northern India.
4. salient features of the Kushan administration.
1. Geo-cultural realms means cognizable space or area which we can perceive. . The meaning of inner Asia or continental Asia relates to those landscapes which do not have access to sea whereas maritime Asia links to those areas which have access to sea. Here south Asia relates to Indian subcontinent, central Asia links to former republics of USSR and west Asia to Iran and Persian gulf countries.
2. There were different types of instruments of negotiations among empires. Matrimonial alliances was one of the most important instruments of negotiations among empires during ancient and medieval period till the origin of modern state.
3. Kushan empire emerged as one of the most powerful empire empire during first century A.D. in central Asia, north India and eastern India. Peshawar was its first capital and Mathura was its second capital which shows territorial importance of northern india. one of the main reasons for the kushanas to migrate to northern india was agricultural surplus because northern india was mainly plain area which was very suitable for agricultural purposes.
4. Kushanas had very unique system of administrative system. King was highest level of administration. King and kingship was linked with divine rule.The Kushans seem to have followed the earlier existing pattern of the Indo-Greeks and Parthians by appointing ksatrapas and mahaksatrapas for different units of the empire. There were other officials performing both civil and military functions, called dandanayaka and mahadandanayaka. At village level, gramika and padrapala– both signifying ‘village headman’, who collected the king’s dues and took cognizance of crimes in his area.
Walter Taylor (1948) began with the mainstream understanding of culture as the product of human cognitive activity. Postmodernism has influenced many cultural fields including, religion, linguistics, architecture, history, sociology, visual arts and music. In the Kushan period some these factors played the key role in the connection to geo-cultural realm with (south, central and west) Inner Asia. Modernism and Postmodernism are understood as cultural stances or sets of perspective. Particularly cultural realm distinct from one cultural realm to another cultural realm but in the case of geographic realm an area where people move into and the people developed a cultural realm in order to survive in certain geographic area. In the Kanishka period only single dominant in (South, Central, and West) Asia (couldn't understand it) and also after some time of period at the height of their power under Kanishka, the Kushan didn’t seem to be interested in territorial gains at the expense of their neighbours, the Parthian. In the Kushan empire found the cultural realm with Inner Asia on the basis of martial relations, visual arts and on the basis of coins. Through this cultural realm were also build up the political and socio- economic relations between the south, central and west Asia. Some examples are available for the cultural relations between in Inner Asia. Therefore peace was resolved with the marriage of Hamizd Second, son and successor Narseh (A.D. 303-309) to a Kushan princess. Some of the copper coins of Kujula Kadphises have an observed had closely relationship between Roman and Kushan empire and also Graeco-Roman art in Gandhara sheds light on the cultural and commercial relations between the Kushan and Roman world. So after all of these cultural realm was main factor in the build up geo-cultural realm between Inner Asia.
2.Negotiation instruments between empires have limited options but in the case of states have so many options. During the empire period negotiation instruments were limited because they have no fixed territory, no common administrative law but in the case of states many options are available. During the imperial period the states have no international authority but above the modern states there is international authority. In the Kushan period one could see basic instruments for the negotiation like martial relations, coins, commercial transactions, and patronage of great power (Kushan). The Kushan rulers were secularists in one sense, in that they depicted divinities from different Pantheons on the coins, but religion and policy were interlinked, means they also used the religion for negotiation. In A.D. 232 from a linkage found between the Sasanian gold coinage of Shapur Second struck at Meru and the Kushano-Sasanian coinage of Hormizd First at the beginning of the Kushano-Sasanian series. Some of the copper coins of Kujula Kadphises have an observe head closely copied from the portraits on the Julio-Claudian silver denarii of Augustus and Tiberius. Roman aurei and denarii were used extensively in Roman sea trade with India, which trade in silk and spices. The distribution of copper coins of Kanishka and Huvishka extends as far as Patna and Gaya in eastern India. Commercial transactions were also big factor because political relations seen in the dispatch of embassies seem to be connected with trade contacts and commercial transactions related to the silk trade. Many embassies came to Augustus with the presentation of gifts including tigers, animals that the Roman saw for the first time.
3. Humans migrated due to many factors such as changing climate and landscape and inadequate food supply. World system theory looks at the migration from a global perspective. It explains that interaction from different societies can be an important factor in social change within societies. The extension of the Kushan Empire in northern India seems to have been achievement of Kanishka, where inscriptions are found at Mathura (second capital of Kushan), Sarnath and Kausambi. The northern India was also important for political security and economic prosperity. The best example was Huvishka’s reign. The extensive range of gold coins of Huvishka retaining gold weight standard and high gold purity, suggests economic stability closely associated with the political stability. The Kushan migration in northern India some pull factors are involved like geographic location, attractive climate, better living conditions (means agriculture), security. Kushan lived partly in the steppe and wooded-steppe zone, partly in the oasis zone. The first means migration of the Indo-Iranians during the second millennium B.C. was connected with the rise of animal husbandry, in particular horse breeding and with the invention of the two or four wheeled vehicles. Another factor for migration in northern India, Kushan were able to establish strong commercial relations with the eastern provinces but the maritime routes between the north-west India so this was also pull factor involved for the migration for northern India. The Kushan, who were themselves of nomadic origin and during that time nomadic peoples faces so many challenges for the livelihood like crops, water, security etc. In present time migration factors had been changed because this time included so many global factors like cultural, religion, ethnic migration, due to civil war and also globalization.
4. The basic meaning of administration is the function of a political state in exercising its governmental duties. In the Kushan period the administrative responsibilities were in different areas. The date of Kanishka does not stand in isolation. The vast Kushan Empire, extending from Central Asia to Bihar and from Kashmir to Sind containing peoples of different nationalities and religions with a heterogeneous socio-economic background was governed through an organized administrative system probably in three tires at central, provincial and local levels. The other officials performing both military and civil functions called ‘dandanayaka’ and ‘mahadandanayaka’. The Dandanayaka was presumably the wielder of the rod, acting both as commissioner of police to prevent crime and as judge or criminal magistrate administering justice. He could also perform military functions although he distinguished from the real commander. The scanty information available suggests that the Kushan rulers accepted the prevalent Indian and Chinese concept of the divinity of kingship and borrowed the Achaemenid empire(c. 550-330 BCE some times know First Persian Empire) and subsequently Indo-Greek and Indo-Parthian system of appointing satraps (a subordinate ruler) as provincial governs, while the feudal lord was their own creation. The appointment of satraps for Mathura and as at Sarnnath, points to a determined control over the region, because through this may be Huvishka reign was a period of political security and economic prosperity. There may have been satraps for the other parts of the empire administration policy. The Kushan administration policy with Inner Asia was very decent like relations with Rome seem to be connected with trade contacts and commercial transactions related to the silk trade, in northern India interest with the political aspirations.
Reasons for the kushanas to migrate to northern India
Nomadic pastoralist are most general regarded as predator to the sedentary agricultural societies. The interaction and interdependence between nomads and agriculturalists is an important topic of world history.From antiquity, on the vast grassland of central Asia, many nomadic people migrated in the search of pastureland. The Yuezhi people, who early resided near the border of the agricultural part of China and later migrated on the Eurasian steppe all the way to north India, eventually becoming the ruler of vast agricultural-trading kushan empire, comprised one of the nomadic groups better known by the sedentary societies of that time. The Yuezhi- Kushan career, however, from a friendly trading relationship with one agricultural society, to a military humiliation and migration on the steppe, followed then by invasion and occupation of another agricultural society, and finally to the rise as cosmopolitan broker of Eurasian trade, displayed the various form of interaction between nomadic and sedentary peoples.
As far as northern India is concerned, the migration of kushanas in this region occurred around 1st century CE under the reign of Kanishka. There are several reasons has been given for their migration into northern India. These are as follows:
(a) Suitable climatic conditions and plain area for agriculture which enhanced agricultural surplus was one of the most important reasons which pushed Kushanas to migrate to northern India.
(b) India was one of the most important region for trade and commerce. So lucrative trading activities also attracted Kushanas.
(c) Extension of the sway of empire could be one of the convincing reasons behind the migration.
(d) Cultural dissemination was one of the factor behind migration to northern India.
Salient features of Kushana administration
The administrative system of Kushanas was replica of Indo-Greek, Romans and Parthian administrative system.The Kushana empire which had heterogeneous socio-economic and religious background people, was governed through an organized administrative system, probably in three tiers, at central, provincial and local levels. King was highest level of administration. King and kingship was linked with divine rule.The Kushana kings generally used exalted titles like maharajadhiraja (king of kings), daivaputra (son of heaven), soter (Saviour) and kaisara (Caesar). The Kushans had appointed ksatrapas and mahaksatrapas for different units of the empire. There were other officials performing both civil and military functions, called dandanayaka and mahadandanayaka.The two terms are found in numerous inscriptions throughout India, suggesting the prevalence of this feudal element – as one might presume – in the administrative set-up of different ruling families over a considerable period of time. They were charged with administrative and military responsibilities in different areas. The dandanayaka was presumably the wielder of the rod (danda), acting both as commissioner of police to prevent crime and as a judge or criminal magistrate administering justice. He could also perform military functions although he is distinguished from the senani or real commander. He is also differentiated from the dandapasika of the later records which probably signifies someone carrying fetters (pasa).The use of foreigners alone at the higher level of political organization ensured efficiency and minimized the chances of internal dissension and disorder, but this principle was not applied at local village level. At village level, gramika and padrapala– both signifying ‘village headman’, who collected the king’s dues and took cognizance of crimes in his area. The administrative system of Kushanas was responsible for the enhancing its hold and prestige across the empire till considerable period. It also helped in flourishing trade and commerce.
Kushan seems to have spread their empire with the help of geo-cultural realm(south, central and west) along with inner and maritime Asia. Indo-Scythians is a term used to refer sakas who migrated into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Uttarpradesh from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Sakas were basically nomad. The first saka king in india was Maus or Moga who established saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Gradually control of the area from the Scythians tribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally known as Gandhara (it is name of an ancient kingdom that was located in northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan). It was a centre of international commercial activities . It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran, India and Central Asia. Kushan established twin capital near present day Kabul and Peshawar than known as Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.
The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria. Hellenistic culture means Greek culture, religion, art and literature. They also adopted the Greek alphabet to suit their own language and soon began minting coinage on the Greek model. On their coins, they used Greek language legends combined with Pali legends.
The Kushans believed in predominantly Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism means religion and philosophy based on the teaching of prophet Zoroaster and was formerly among the world largest religions. It was probably found sometimes before the 6th century BCE in Greater Iran. Besides it, many Kushan started adopting aspects of Buddhist culture. Like the Egyptians, they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek culture of the Hellenistic kingdom. The great Kushan emperor Vima Kadphises may have embraced saivism. Saivism is the oldest sect of Hinduism. Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal and Srilanka mostly. Besides it, saivism included parts of south-east Asia especially Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia.
The rule of the Kushans linked the seagoing trade of the Indian Ocean with the commerce of the silk road through the long civilized Indus-Valley. At the height of the dynasty, the Kushan loosely ruled a territory that extended to the Aral Sea through present day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and comparative peace of such vast expenses encouraged long distance trade, brought Chinese silks to Rome and created string of flourishing urban centres.
The Kushan empire was extending from Central Asia to Bihar and from Kashmir to Sind. It had contained different nationalities and religions of people with heterogeneous socio-economic background. All these were governed through an organised administration system. This system were three tiers like central, provincial and local level. The king seems to have possessed all power. There were no any advisory body or councillors. The Kushan seems to have followed the pattern of the Indus-Greek and Parthians. Kushan established governor for their province.
They mentioned other official performing both civil and military functions i.e. dandanayak and mahadandanayak. The dandanayak was presumably the wielder of the rod acting both as commissioner of police to prevent crime and as a judge or criminal magistrate administrating justice. He could also perform military functions. The use of foreigners alone at the higher level of political organisation ensured efficiency and minimized the chances of internal angry disagreement and disorder, but this principal was not applied at local village level. Prakrit and Khrosthi script are the official language and script of the Kushan administration respectively.
